Search & Rescue - Structural Collapse Operations

Phase - I Arrival on Scene

First arriving Team Leader should take Command and begin an immediate size-up of the situation.

1. Spotting Apparatus: The first-in Team should spot the apparatus in a position that it will not be affected by a secondary collapse of the structure.
   

• Staging: Command should institute Level 1 and Level 2 staging procedures immediately.
• Assess the need for additional resources: Command should immediately begin to assess the need for additional resources. If additional resources are necessary, Command should put in an early call for them. At that time, Command should identify a Level 2 staging area. If it is later determined that the additional resources are not needed, Command can return those units to service. Command should assess the need for outside heavy equipment early, and request mobile cranes, front-end loaders, etc., with large capacity.
• Assess the Hazards: Command should do an immediate hazard assessment or should delegate that responsibility to a Safety Sector of a Team. Some hazards associated with structural collapse are: potential for secondary collapse, explosion with fire due to broken gas and electrical lines, falling debris, toxic atmosphere, etc.
• Secure the Hazards: Safety Sector should secure all hazards as soon as possible. This will include shutting off the utilities (i.e., gas, electrical, water). If it is not possible to secure all hazards, Command should notify all rescue personnel operating on scene of the hazards present.

During Phase I of structural collapse operations, Command must consider the fact that if strong control of the incident is not gained quickly; it could easily escalate into an out-of-control situation. A typical structural collapse operation will have a lot of unorganized, well-intentioned efforts by civilian personnel. This situation may make the entire operation unsafe. Command must focus attention early on building a good strong Command structure that will support a campaign operation.

Phase II Pre-Rescue Operations

• REMOVAL OF SURFACE VICTIMS: Initial on scene companies should be directed in rescuing victims that can be seen on the surface. Rescuers must be aware of all the physical hazards present at the scene of a structural collapse.
• ESTABLISH A PERIMETER: While initial rescue of surface victims is going on, Command should establish a perimeter around the whole collapse site and keep all incoming civilian personnel out of the immediate area.
• ESTABLISH TRANSPORTATION CORRIDOR: During initial stages of a campaign operation, Command should attempt to ensure that there will be roadways into and out of the collapse site. This may include establishing liaison with the Police Department and re-route all traffic well around the collapse site.
• ESTABLISH VICTIM STAGING AREA: Command should designate Treatment and Transportation Sectors. An area should be established away from the hazards of the collapse to account for, treat, and transport victims.
• REMOVE ALL CIVILIAN & NON-ESSENTIAL RESCUE PERSONNEL: After initial surface victim removal has been completed, Command should ensure that all personnel are removed from the collapse site. This will allow for the removal of all civilians and the re-grouping of rescue personnel so that a specific action plan can be instituted for the search and rescue of the remaining trapped victims.
• ESTABLISH BUILDING TRIAGE TEAM: After all personnel have been removed from the collapse site, Command should establish building triage teams. This may include structural engineers and/or Fire Department personnel that are specifically trained in the recognition of structural collapse. Prior to these teams engaging in triage activity, Command shall notify them as to the specific action plan and building marking system. If there is a possibility of hazardous materials involvement, Command should assign a Haz Mat Technician to each building triage team.

Phase III Rescue Operations

• ESTABLISH ACTION PLAN FOR SEARCH TEAMS: After all personnel have been removed from the collapse site and all personnel accounted for,Command shall establish a specific action plan for the search and rescue of the remaining victims. This action plan shall be distributed to all rescue personnel that will be operating at the collapse site.
• ESTABLISH ACTION PLAN FOR SEARCH & RESCUE: Prior to beginning search and rescue operations, Command shall design specific search teams. This may include personnel with technical search equipment, dog teams, or firefighter using the hailing (call-out) method of searching for victims. After the building triage teams have completed evaluations of buildings, the search teams will conduct searches of those buildings. Search teams should use standard building marking system after building has been searched. If building triage teams determine that the building is structurally unstable, search and rescue teams shall not enter until appropriate shoring and stabilization has been accomplished.After the removal of all personnel from the collapse site and before resuming building triage and search, a lobby control shall be established and no personnel will return to the collapse site without going through lobby control.
• ESTABLISH RESCUE TEAMS: Rescue teams will follow search teams that have searched previously triaged buildings. Each rescue team shall consist of at least two (2) trained members of the Technical Rescue Team. If there is a possibility of hazardous materials involvement, each rescue team shall have at least one (1) Haz Mat Technician with air monitoring equipment.Rescue teams are not to attempt rescue in a building that has been determined to be unsafe by the building triage teams. Command should assign each rescue team a specific radio designation.
• LOCATING VICTIMS: If the building is known to have live victims trapped, rescue teams shall attempt to locate the victims. If the rescue team must support structural components of the building prior to entry, they shall do so and make the area as safe as possible.
• BREACHING WALLS, FLOORS, AND ROOFS: If at all possible, rescue teams should attempt to gain access vertically. The horizontal breaching of walls should be done only if there is no other means to reach the void space that victims may be trapped in. Horizontal breaching of load bearing walls may precipitate a secondary collapse of the structure. The potential for secondary collapse is less if rescue teams breach structural members from above or below. Prior to breaching a structural load bearing member, a specially trained structural collapse specialist (structural engineer, architect, technical rescue specialist) should approve and oversee the breaching operation. If the atmospheric conditions are not known in the room of desired entry, a "pilot" hole shall be punched to monitor the atmosphere prior to breaching operations.
• CONFINED SPACE ENTRY & RESCUE: After the victim has been located, the rescue team should treat that space the victim is located in as a confined space. Rescue team members should proceed with the rescue, following confined space rescue operation guidelines. The rescue team leader shall designate the proper method of entry into the space and shall ensure the safety of the entry rescuers. All spaces shall be monitored for flammable, toxic, and an oxygen deficient atmosphere before entry is made.
• RESCUE AND EXTRICATION OF VICTIMS: Once the rescue team has located the victim(s) an immediate assessment of the victim shall be done. Rescue teams should consider the effect lifting objects off the victim will have on that victim (i.e., crush syndrome). The rescuer shall determine the safest and most effective method of victim extrication. The rescue team leader shall ensure the safety of the extrication of the victim.
• TRANSFER TO TREATMENT SECTOR: Once the victim has been removed to a safe location, he/she shall be transferred to theTreatment Sector for assessment.
• REMOVAL OF RESCUE TEAMS FROM THE BUILDING: After all located victims have been removed from the building; the rescue teams should "pull out" of the building and update the marking system. Rescue teams should keep in mind that any cribbing and shoring in place should be left in place. The removal of those systems could precipitate a secondary collapse.

Phase IV Selected Debris Removal

LOCATING VICTIMS:

• If rescue teams have not been able to locate victims through other methods, then they should be located by removing debris. If there is a potential for live victims, rescue teams must be very careful when removing debris so as not to cause a secondary collapse or further injury to the victim(s).
• If a victim location is known, either by family members or previously rescued victims, an attempt should be made to remove debris to reach that victim. In light-weight frame construction buildings, this could be accomplished by cutting and hand removing structural members. If the building is of reinforced concrete, it may require breaking large pieces into smaller and more manageable size pieces. This may also require the use of a crane to pick and move the structural components to reach potential victims.
• Rescue team members should assist in the break-up and removal of structural components.A safety team member shall oversee all of these operations to ensure site safety for all operating personnel. If structural components are removed from the site, they should be marked in some way so as to I.D. them with the particular building for future investigative purposes.
• As debris is removed, all operations should be stopped periodically to search for victims. After reasonably debris has been removed which ascertain that there are not any victims, then search and rescue operation can be suspended in that building.

Phase V General Debris Removal/Termination

After it has been determined that no victims could be found alive in the building, a general debris removal can begin. If there is a potential for deceased victims to be trapped in the rubble, removal crews should be alert for signs of those deceased victims.

During general debris removal, if heavy equipment operators spot a sign of a deceased victim(s), a selected debris removal shall be conducted to remove the victim(s) respectfully. Coroner and/or other investigative personnel should be notified to handle the removal of the body(ies).

As debris is removed, each dump truck load shall be marked as to the general area found and final location of the debris. This will help investigators to complete their investigations and reports.

Command may elect to turn general debris removal over to the Responsible Party for final disposition of the building. If this is done, the responsible person should be notified of the proper handling of debris for investigative purposes.

Prior to termination of the incident, Command shall account for all personnel that have been operating at the collapse site. Each company officer should ensure crew and equipment accountability before returning to service.

BUILDING COLLAPSE RESCUE GUIDELINES

1. As one might expect, immediately after a collapse, the debris of the building is very unstable and prone to additional movement. Rescuers must assess the nature of the scene and the pattern of the collapse before entering onto a pile of rubble to insure their own safety and that of those potentially buried in it. Shoring may be necessary to prevent movement, before attempting rescues.
2. Gather as much information as is possible at the onset of the incident. "Intelligence" regarding the last known locations and activities of those believed to be in the structure will greatly assist in developing a plan for recovery efforts. Concentrate your preliminary efforts on areas where people were last seen or known to be.
3. After ensuring rescuer safety and minimal movement of the debris, send small organized teams to the top of the pile and systematically search the surface in specific grids. Use barricade tape and markers to visually demonstrate the areas that have been searched and those that could potentially contain victims. As many as one half (1/2) of all building collapse survivors have historically been rescued near the surface of the debris and early in the effort. Concentrate your efforts on those areas that are believed to be the last known locations of people, when the collapse occurred.
4. CALL for Help!! It normally will be necessary to activate some sort of disaster plan for large scale building collapses. This type of rescue is very manpower intensive and may require large numbers of extrication and medical personnel. Call for the "overhead lift" capability that you will need, as soon as it can be determined that people are missing or still trapped. Remember... it is likely you will need some method of "cutting" concrete and the steel reinforcing bars ("Rebar") that are contained within most modern buildings. (i.e. torches, hydraulic cutting tools, saws).
5. Explore visually, or with mechanical devices (closed circuit/fiber optic TV.), all possible "voids" that are open or can be reached by removing surface debris. It is suggested that, at approximately every hour on the hour, all work at the site be shut down for a few minutes to listen for calls for help. During that period, sound detection devices can be used to "listen" for movement or sounds deep within the debris. Call for "Search Dogs" and handlers, as they are available in your area or region.
6. Continue to remove debris... carefully and vertically, searching each "void" or entrance to a "void" as it becomes available to the rescuer. Consideration must be given to the fact that the rescue effort is NOT over until EVERY reasonable effort has been expended. Expect these type of rescues to last days...especially when multiple buildings are involved (earthquake, avalanche, etc). People have CONTINUALLY and HISTORICALLY been found alive many hours and days into the rescue.
7. Great care must be taken when a person is located, either dead or alive, to ensure that additional collapse doesn't occur in the area of their entrapment. Rescuers should use their hands and small tools to remove the remaining debris surrounding a person. The victims condition may dictate the speed with which rescue efforts progress.
8. DO be prepared for the emotional and psychological implications of the incident. Prepare early for Critical Incident Stress debriefing sessions for rescuers, victims and families. It is strongly suggested that mental health professionals and crisis intervention be made available to the families of those believed trapped, at the earliest opportunity. The stress of protracted digging, discovery of disfigured remains, odd smells and sights can affect even the most hardened of rescue professionals. Supervisory personnel may want to set aside a special place for families and psychological care near to, but, off of the rescue site. To do otherwise will invite charges of insensitively, and probably prompt the families to attempt to enter or stay in the rescue area.
9. Relief for both supervisory and field rescue personnel must be forthcoming. Even though most rescuers will insist in continuing their efforts for many hours, they lose a large part of their effectiveness after 18-24 hours or less. Ensure that all rescuers eat and rest at frequent intervals, as circumstances permit. Prepare to (and do) call in off-duty or mutual aid personnel as they are needed. Stage all extraneous units in a planned way and avoid having more personnel on-site than can effectively work at one time.
10. During long term or at major rescue operations, expect extreme "media" coverage, including the national and international press. Be prepared for analysis and commentary of your every move. It is suggested during the early stages of the event, give these briefings hourly in an area adjacent to the site and provide as much information as you can actually verify. As the length of the rescue increases, plan a morning and afternoon news conference. It is suggested that someone monitor press activities on a constant basis, in order to be able to anticipate the questions and concerns of the media.
11. Particularly in multi-story buildings, be prepared for the possibility and likelihood of underground or cave- type rescue procedures. This type of specialized rescues requires those experienced with climbing (ascending and descending) maneuvers and the use of technical rappelling methods. Each rescue team (minimum of two rescuers) going "underground" should have a safety rope attached and be in constant communications by radio with the surface. They should also possess a minimum of three viable light sources. Hose rollers and other types of "rope slip devices" must be used, as to avoid the sharp edges of concrete that will abrade normal rescue ropes.
12. IT AIN"T OVER UNTIL IT'S OVER! Generally speaking, you will be criticized for any early termination of rescue efforts, if there are still people missing or bodies not recovered. A rule of thumb says it's over when everyone is accounted for or the "field is cleared" (of debris). Practical application says that you will probably scale back the aggressiveness and scope of the effort after several days of rescue, but that you should remain aware of the fact that people have been successfully rescued alive after as much as seventy (70) days... buried in the rubble of an earthquake 2005 Pakistan. The thought of someone remaining buried alive for several days should be enough motivation for most rescuers to continue with their efforts until every possible hope has been exhausted.
13. Establish on-scene (and separate) communications (Radio, Data, telephone) connections and expect problems with being able to coordinate with many differing agencies. It might be suggested that a "common" disaster frequency might be designated in preplanning sessions for the initial response to the incident. Once on-scene, the Incident Command team may need to establish several different "nets" of units or agencies and have a common dispatch center at the command post. Also remember that the need for coordination with local and state police may become necessary for crowd/access control and other purposes. Often police agencies will become involved in securing the remains of fatal victims in a temporary morgue at the scene.